A Stand Against Assisted Suicide Essay Example

A Stand Against Assisted Suicide Essay A Stand Against Assisted Suicide Assisted suicide is a highly controversial topic. Assisted suicide is when, upon request, a doctor prescribes a lethal dose of medication to a terminally ill patient so that the patient can kill him or herself. In other words, a doctor provides the means for a patient to commit suicide. A form of assisted suicide is euthanasia. Euthanasia is when the doctor intentionally kills the patient with the intentions of ending the patient’s suffering; mercy killing. Although there have been many Supreme Court rulings on assisted suicide and the practice of euthanasia, it is legal in some states like Oregon and Washington. The practice of assisted suicide is done under the term â€Å"terminally ill. † There is no concrete interpretation of the phrase. Therefore, the phrase terminally ill can be interrupted according to which ever definition works best for us. Assisted suicide also causes mistrust between patients and doctors, unnecessary deaths, and involuntary suicide. Assisted suicide has a profound affect on family relationships, doctor-patient relationships, and ethical standards because of the mistrust it creates and the controversy over the issue. Assisted suicide and the use of euthanasia should be outlawed everywhere in the United States, not just in some states. Because euthanasia is a form of assisted suicide, I will, for the purpose of this paper, address the terms â€Å"assisted suicide† and â€Å"euthanasia† as one practice. The most important argument for banning assisted suicide may be that of misdiagnoses. We will write a custom essay sample on A Stand Against Assisted Suicide specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now We will write a custom essay sample on A Stand Against Assisted Suicide specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer We will write a custom essay sample on A Stand Against Assisted Suicide specifically for you FOR ONLY $16.38 $13.9/page Hire Writer In a 2006 New York Times article, journalist David Leonhardt said that â€Å"Studies of autopsies have shown that doctors seriously misdiagnose fatal illnesses about 20 percent of the time† (Leonhardt). Harvard hematologist Jerome Groopman found that â€Å"80% of medical mistakes are the result of predictable mental traps, or cognitive errors†¦ [While] only 20% are due to technical mishaps† (Gorman). In other words, 80% of medical errors are due to the doctors themselves and not to technological issues. With doctors misdiagnosing patients at this astounding rate, it is inevitable that some patients will be misdiagnosed with a terminally ill disease, become depressed about their diagnoses, and think their pain is uncontrollable. This may leads to a request for assisted suicide under false pretences. Not only will these be tragic events, but doctors who misdiagnose are bound to be charged with murder since their diagnoses led to the intentional death of their patient. Erik Van Tongerloo wrote an article against the use of euthanasia on the basis of a true and personal experience: When I was 10 years old I was involved in an accident and was in a coma for 5 weeks. The doctors told my parents I had no chance to survive and they treated me because it was their duty. If euthanasia was allowed maybe I [would] not [be] alive anymore. I am still alive and most of my health problems are cured now. (qtd. in Tongerloo) In Tongerloo’s story, the doctors made a devastating decision prematurely that could have changed the life of Tongerloo and his family forever. Like Tongerloo, we should ask ourselves the same question: If euthanasia was a common practice at that time, would he still be alive? I would like to think so, but we cannot predict what would have been. We can only prevent what can happen in the future by banning the use of assisted suicide in the United States. Assisted suicide should also be outlawed because of the open interpretation of the phrase â€Å"terminally ill. † In other words, â€Å"terminal† can be defined in many different ways. Jack Kevorkian, once deemed â€Å"Doctor Death,† â€Å"defines terminal illness as any disease that curtails life even for a day† (Sarkar). There are many diseases or conditions that can â€Å"curtail life even for a day. † Diabetic patients can slip into temporary comas if they are not careful in treating themselves. Nonetheless, they are not good candidates for assisted suicide. In contrast to Kevorkian’s definition, The Uniform Rights of the Terminally Ill Act of 1989 defines â€Å"Terminal condition [as meaning] an incurable and irreversible condition that, without the administration of life-sustaining treatment, will, in the opinion of the attending physician, result in death within a relatively short time† (National). This is a much more acceptable definition. Several states also have specific laws confined to their state on what â€Å"terminally ill† means. As we can see, the term â€Å"terminally ill† can be revised and manipulated to include everyone at one point or another. With such confusing definitions, some people could argue that they are terminally ill and therefore have a right to assisted suicide. It is only a matter of time before someone makes this argument in front of a Supreme Court and is granted the use of assisted suicide to end their life that may have otherwise been rich and full of experience. Another reason that the practice of assisted suicide should be outlawed is that it will encourage distrust between patients and their attending physicians. Judge John Noonan of the Ninth Circuit panel said that â€Å"most patients do what their doctors recommend. As an eminent commission concluded, once the physician suggests suicide or euthanasia, some patients will feel that they have few, if any, alternatives but to accept the recommendation† (Bork 15-20). We all feel the need to do exactly as our doctor tells us so we should all understand the pressure that these people would be under once the recommendation to commit suicide is presented to them. This pressure is the underlying cause for mistrust in the relationship between a patient and his or her doctor. The medical team, especially doctors, are expected to provide a safe and secure setting for patients. This includes not only physical safety but also the sense of security. When a doctor assists in suicide, people believe that the patient was pressured by the doctor into doing it; therefore breaking the trust bond that patients have with their medical staff. Another important reason to ban assisted suicide is that terminally ill patients may decide upon assisted suicide while they are mentally unwell. Being termed â€Å"terminally ill† has many mentally devastating consequences for most patients. They are disheartened to hear that they will soon die from their disease. In most cases, this leads to severe depression. While under such overwhelming depression, patients are in a very vulnerable state of mind, making any decision they make questionable. Many patients feel pressure from themselves, loved ones, or even from their attending doctors, to end their life, as it is a burden on those around them. Depression is not the only factor that affects the mind of the terminally ill. Most patients with terminal diseases are in unimaginable chronic pain and are under an aggressive regime of pain medication. The affects of such an amount of medication can definitely take its toll on the human mind. Even though the high amount of pain medication does offer some relief of pain, for most patients, it does not eliminate it completely. Therefore, on top of depression and pain medication they also have to deal with the residing pain affecting their state of mind. Mojtaba Rismanchi, a medical student at the University of Medical Sciences, said that â€Å"studies using MRI technology have shown brain deficits in CPPs [(Chronic Pain Patients)]†¦ [A] person who is under the mental pressures [of pain] is not capable of making critical decisions† (Rismanchi). According to Rismanchi, patients experiencing chronic pain cannot make critical decisions, like assisted suicide, with a straight and clear mind. We can compare the affects of chronic pain to torture. When someone is tortured they will most likely do anything, rational or not, to end their pain. It is the same with CPPs. We can not allow such radical decisions to be made under such circumstances, but rather we should continue to strive to make their lives more comfortable. Another strong argument for banning assisted suicide is the â€Å"slippery-slope† argument that says that voluntary euthanasia will lead to involuntary euthanasia. Penney Lewis, a School of Law graduate, says that we’ve seen this â€Å"slippery-slope† before with the case of abortion. [T]he legalization of abortion in limited circumstances [has lead] down the slippery slope towards abortion on demand and even infanticide; and the legalization of assisted suicide [will lead] inexorably to the acceptance of voluntary euthanasia and subsequently to the sanctioning of the practice of non-voluntary euthanasia – even involuntary euthanasia of â€Å"undesirable† individuals. Lewis 195-210) If we look at how the outlook on abortion used to be and how far its acceptance has come today, we can use abortion as a precedent, like Lewis has, to see what will happen in the future if we allow assisted suicide, even with limited abilities. In fact, studies have already been made in other countries that already practice assisted suicide, such as the Netherlands, to determine how many individuals die each year due to involuntary euthan asia. Despite the fact that the rate of legalized euthanasia in the Netherlands has gone up, in the three large-scale surveys conducted in that country the rate of terminations of life without explicit request (the Dutch term for non-voluntary and involuntary euthanasia) has remained steady at roughly 0. 7–0. 8% of all deaths in the Netherlands (roughly 900–1000 deaths). (qtd. in Smith 131) The Netherlands are not the only country to be experiencing death by involuntary euthanasia. In 1997, Australia reported that 3. 5% of all deaths involving euthanasia were the result of non-voluntary or involuntary euthanasia (Smith 131). Belgium and Denmark are also listed in the study, each with their own numbers of involuntary deaths. As the evidence points out, voluntary euthanasia will lead to involuntary euthanasia if we allow it to be practiced. Some people disagree with banning the use of assisted suicide and euthanasia. The backbone of their campaign is the idea of autonomy, â€Å"the quality or state of being self-governing; especially the right of self-government† (Dictionary). They believe that everyone should be able to decide how they want to die. If someone wants to die by assisted suicide, it is his or her fundamental right to be able to do so. Proponents of banning assisted suicide do not solely disagree that people should be able to be self-governing, but they do believe that the consequences of these actions will affect everything; thus the arguments against it. The consequences of allowing such actions would be far worse than the consequences of outlawing it. Another argument against banning assisted suicide is that by doing so we are forcing patients to suffer and endure unbearable pain and heartache. This has long been a concern for both parties campaigning for or against assisted suicide. Proponents of outlawing the practice have agreed that extra measures can be put in place to make the fight against pain more aggressive and accurate. Everyday new discoveries are being made to help these people escape their suffering without ending their life. Besides medications, certified nursing assistants and other nurse faculty are trained and highly qualified to help meet these patient’s every need and help them be as comfortable as possible. A last argument against banning assisted suicide is that families with a loved one plagued by a terminal illness can end their grief and continue on with their lives by allowing an assisted suicide to happen to their loved one. It is a complicated situation and emotionally tiring to have a loved one with a terminal disease. No one admits to understanding the grief one must go through while watching a loved one suffer in agony. However, there are other alternatives to dealing with this grief. Most hospitals offer convenient counselors and therapists that specialize in helping the families of sick patients. These therapists are trained to help families deal with these hard times and help them continue to live life. Ending someone’s life so that the family can â€Å"move on† is understandable, but not acceptable when other alternatives are presented. As I have shown, assisted suicide and the use of euthanasia must be outlawed in every state. Lewis was right when she said that â€Å"today’s decision-makers [are called upon] to consider the behavior of others who tomorrow will have to apply or interpret today’s decisions† (Lewis 195-210). The decisions we make today will be acted upon in the future. If we allow assisted suicide, it will forever change the moral code, by which we, as the community of medicine, act upon, the relationships our patients will have with us, and numerous other devastating affects. â€Å"The terminally ill are a class of persons who need protection from family, social, and economic pressures, and who are often particularly vulnerable to such pressures because of chronic pain, depression, and the effects of medication† (Alaska). Together we can stand up against assisted suicide and encourage the continuous study of alternative methods to help terminally ill patients. We will not regret it. Works Cited Alaska Supreme Court. Sampson et al. v State of Alaska (09/21/2001) sp-5474. Alaska Supreme Court Decisions. Web. Touchngo. com. 24 Feb. 2010. â€Å"Autonomy. † Def. Merriam-Webster’s Online Dictionary. http://www. merriam-webster. com/dictionary/autonomy Bork, Robert H. KILLING FOR CONVENIENCE: ABORTION, ASSISTED SUICIDE, AND Euthanasia. Human Life Review. 3. 1 (1997): 15-20. Print. Gorman, Christine. Where Doctors Go Wrong. Time Magazine 26 March 2007: Print. Academic Search Complete. 24 Feb. 2010. Leonhardt, David. Why Doctors So Often Get It Wrong. New York Times 22 Feb. 2006: p. 1. Print. Lewis, Penney. The Empirical Slippery Slope from Voluntary to Non-Voluntary Euthanasia.. Journal of Law, Medicine Ethics. 35. 1 (2007): 195-210. Print. National Conference of Commissioners. UNIFORM RIGHT S OF THE TERMINALLY ILL ACT (1989). Kauai, Hawaii July 28 – August 4, 1989. Rismanchi, Mojtaba. Chronic Pain and Voluntary Euthanasia. Journal of Medical Ethics History of Medicine. 1. (2008): 1-3. Print. Retrieved from the â€Å"Academic Search Complete† database. Sarkar, Spiti. â€Å"Right to die- To be or not to be? legalserviceidia. com. Smith, Stephen W. Empirical research in the debate on physician-assisted suicide and voluntary euthanasia.. Clinical Ethics. 2. 3 (2007): 129-132. Print. Tongerloo, Erik Van. Arguments against euthanasia. helium. com. Helium Inc. , Web. 23 Feb 2010.

The ability of the brain to re

The ability of the brain to re Introduction The ability of the brain to change following an individual’s experience is referred to as neuroplasticity (Alamacos, Segura, Borrel, 1998). This characteristic of the brain was discovered more recently and discredits the earlier belief that the brain could never change after a person has gone through the critical period of infancy. The brain is chiefly made up of nerve cells and glial cells which are usually linked.Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The ability of the brain to re-task a different area following brain damage to one area specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Learning can be achieved through the alteration of the strength of these connections. In the last century, the common belief was that the lower brain and the neocortical areas could not be altered in structure after structure after childhood (Winship murphy, 2009). This belief has been challenged by the new revelations that indicate that all parts of the brain are plastic and can be altered even in older individuals. This paper seeks to identify the ability of the brain to re-task a different area to perform a function that has been affected by brain damage (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, 2005). Earlier studies Previous studies done by Wiesel and Hubel showed that ocular dominance columns that are located in the lowest neocortical visual area were largely not changeable after one has passed the critical period in development (Black, Cianci, Markokowitz, 2001). These critical periods were also examined in respect to language development; the findings suggested that all the sensory pathways were permanent subsequent to the critical period (Kaeser, et al., 2010). However, the earlier brain studies had also shown that changes in the environment could result in change in behavior and cognition. This change was linked to the alteration in neuronal connections and neurogenesis in specific parts of the brain such a s the hippocampus (Boudrias, Mcpherson, Frost, Cheney, 2010). Decades of enduring research on the functions and structure of the brain indicate that alterations take place in the lowest neocortical processing areas and that the alterations could result in marked changes in the pattern of neuronal activation in response to experience (Kaeser, et al., 2010).Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More The resulting neuroplasticity theory asserts that experience can result in the modification of the brain’s physical structure and the functional organization (Alamacos, Segura, Borrel, 1998). Neurobiology and cortical maps The idea of synaptic pruning forms one of the important aspects of neuroplasticity. Synaptic pruning explains that specific links in the brain are subjected to constant removal or recreation depending on how they are being used (Draganski, 2006). The con cept of synaptic pruning is best captured in the aphorism â€Å"which states that neurons that fire together, wire together/neurons that fire apart, wire apart† (Boudrias, Mcpherson, Frost, Cheney, 2010, p. 8). This indicates that two neighboring neurons that concurrently produce an impulse can form one cortical map. Cortical maps are used to explain cortical organization of, in most cases, the sensory system (Giovanna, Paolo, Luca, Thomas, 2008). For instance, sensory impulses from the two arms are projected to different cortical sites in the brain. Thus the cortical organization defined by the response to sensory inputs represents the human body in form of a map. Researchers Merzenich, Doug Rasmusson and Jon Kaas conducted studies on the cortical maps by removing sensory inputs (Cutler Hoffman, 2005). Their findings which have been supported by various other studies show that the removal of an input in the cortical map results in the rewiring of the impulse through adjac ent inputs. Treatment of brain damage as an application of neuroplasticity Through neuroplasticity studies it has been found out that a brain activity that results into a certain function can be relocated to a different part of the brain. This may take place in the course of normal experience or may occur in the course recovery following brain damage (Draganski, 2006).Advertising We will write a custom research paper sample on The ability of the brain to re-task a different area following brain damage to one area specifically for you for only $16.05 $11/page Learn More Neuroplasticity forms the basis on which the scientific explanation for the treatment of acquired brain injury is founded. The restoration of the lost functions through therapeutic programs in form of rehabilitation is achieved due to the plastic nature of the brain (Frost, Bury, Friel, Plautz, Nudo, 2002). Cortical tissue damage, as might occur following stroke, is usually known to affect t he initiation and execution of muscular contraction in the extremities opposite the side of the injury (Winship murphy, 2009). In addition the precise manipulative power and the ability to skillfully utilize the upper extremity are usually weakened. Depending on the extent of the injury, some functions usually return in weeks or months, although full recovery is uncommon in human beings. There is increasing evidence which indicates that the return of function observed following â€Å"cortical injury is largely attributed to the adaptive plasticity in the remaining cortical and sub-cortical motor apparatus† (Black, Cianci, Markokowitz, 2001). For instance, the studies pneurophysiologic and neuroanatomic on animals and the neuroimaging and other non invasive stimulation research studies conducted on humans provide evidence to show that adaptive changes take place in the undamaged tissues that surround a cortical infarct (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, 2005). Contrary to the previou s beliefs, the adult brain is not â€Å"hard wired† with fixed immutable neuronal circuits (Draganski, 2006). There are several instances through which the cortex and sub cortex can be rewired as a consequence of training or following an injury to the brain. This is supported by evidence that new brain cells can develop even in the adult mammal even at old age. The research findings so far have shown that this mainly occurs in the hippocampus and the olfactory bulb, however, there is increasing evidence that indicates that other regions of the brain may undergo neurogenesis (Frost, Bury, Friel, Plautz, Nudo, 2002). In most parts of the brain, dead neurons are not recreated but the specific functions are seen to be restored. However, evidence on the active, â€Å"experience-dependent re-organization of the synaptic networks of the brain involving multiple inter-related structures including the cerebral cortex is lacking† (Kaeser, et al., 2010, p. 13). The specific path way through which the process takes place at the molecular level is subject to intense research.Advertising Looking for research paper on psychology? Let's see if we can help you! Get your first paper with 15% OFF Learn More Some theories have been advanced to explain how experience results in the synaptic organization of the brain, one of the theories include the general theory of the mind and epistemology referred to as Neural Darwinism which was developed by Gerald Edelman (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, 2005). Neuroplasticity also occupies a central point in the memory and learning theories that are characterized by changes in the structure and function of the synapses through experience (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, 2005). Sensory substitution and neuroplasticity is best remembered through the works of Paul Bach-y-Rita (Lazar, Kerr, Wasserman, 2005). He came up with a brain port while working with a patient whose vestibular system had been injured. The â€Å"brain port machine would replace the patient’s vestibular apparatus by sending signals to her brain via the tongue† (Winship murphy, 2009, p. 15). The patient used the machine for a certain period of time and regained the normal function. Her experience is best explained through plasticity because her vestibular system was disorganized following prolonged gentamicin medication and thus was sending uncoordinated signals to the brain. Using the machine developed by Paul bay her vestibular system was able determine new neural pathways that were instrumental in reinstating the lost function. Paul Bach-y-Rita used the following analogy to explain the plasticity concept; â€Å"if one is driving from one place to another and the main bridge that connects the two places goes out, he will be paralyzed before deciding to take the old farmland roads that are definitely shorter† (Winship murphy, 2009). By using these roads more, one will start getting wherever he wanted to go faster. Thus the new established neural pathways become stronger with more use. The unmasking process of the new neural pathways is generally understood to one of the main principal ways through which the plastic brain reorganizes itself (Boudrias, Mcpherson, Frost, Cheney, 2010). Another group referred to as the Randy Nudo learned that if an infarction leads to the cutting of blood supply to a certain part of the motor cortex of a monkey, the part of the body that is stimulated by the affected brain portion will respond when adjacent areas are stimulated (Kaeser, et al., 2010). In one of their studies, the intracortical microstimulation (ICMS) mapping techniques were applied on nine normal monkeys (Draganski, 2006). Some of the monkeys were subjected to ischemic infarction protocols. The monkeys that underwent ischemic infarction retained more finger flexion during food retrieval and after several months this deficit returned to the levels they were before the operation (Kaeser, et al., 2010). In regard to the mapping conducted to represent the distal forelimb, it was shown that cortical representations of movements had undergone reorganization in the entire surrounding cortex that had not been damaged. Better understanding on how the normal and damaged cortical tissues interact has formed the basis for current therapeutical approach in the treatment of stroke patients (Frost, Bury, Friel, Plautz, Nudo, 2002). The Nudo group is currently taking part in studying the treatment approaches that may result in better management of stroke. Such approaches include â€Å"physiotherapy, pharmacotherapy and electrical stimulation therapy† (Cutler Hoffman, 2005, p. 4). A professor at the Vanderbilt University known as Jon Kaas has been able to reveal â€Å"how somatosensory area 3b and the ventroposterior (VP) nucleus of the thalamus are affected by long standing unilateral dorsal column lesions at cervical levels in macaque monkeys† (Kaeser, et al., 2010, p. 10). This shows that the brains of an adult mammal can reorganize following brain damage or injury but the reorganization will be injury dependent. His more recent studies have been focused on somatosensory structure. Normally when injury is inflicted on the somatosensory cortex, one experiences a dysfunction in the perception of some part of the body. Jon Kaas is currently trying to understand how these systems (somatosensory, cognitive, motor systems) are plastic as a result of injury (Frost, Bury, Friel, Plautz, Nudo, 2002). More recently, neuroplasticity was applied in the treatment of traumatic brain injuries. The treatment was done by a team of doctors and researchers at Emory University, particularly Dr. Donald Stein and Dr. David Wright (Cutler Hoffman, 2005). This particular treatment was first of its kind to be applied in that it is affordable and does not show any side effects. Dr. Stein had had earlier observed that female mice recovered better from brain injuries as compared to their male counterparts. In addition he realized that the female mice had a better recovery record in some stages of the estrus cycle. After intense research studies, the team attributed this phenomenon to the levels of progesteron e (Cutler Hoffman, 2005). The higher the progesterone levels the better the recovery witnessed in the mice. Thus they developed a therapeutic approach that included enhanced levels of progesterone administration to patients with brain injuries. It was shown that if progesterone administration was done following brain injury that result in â€Å"stroke there were fewer instances of edema, inflammation, and neuronal cell death, and enhanced spatial reference memory and sensory motor recovery† (Kaeser, et al., 2010, p. 7). Administration of progesterone on a group of severely brain injured patients showed a reduction in mortality rates by up to 60%. Conclusion This paper sought to use existing literature in academic sources to explain how a lost function due to brain injury or damage can be re-tasked to another part of the brain. The area concerned with this study is referred to as neuroplasticity which can be simply defined as the ability of the brain to change following an in dividual’s experience (Boudrias, Mcpherson, Frost, Cheney, 2010). Neuroplasticity has led to a major shift in the way the understanding of the human brain. Major studies have been carried out by researchers and doctors to understand how the brain is able to re-task different area following damage to one area. Though there is no conclusive evidence to show how this occurs at the molecular level, there has been a marked improvement in the understanding and therapeutical application. References Alamacos, M. C., Segura, G., Borrel, J. (1998). Transfer function to a specific area of the cortex after induced recovery from brain damage. Eur J Neurosci, 5:853-863. Black, P., Cianci, S., Markokowitz, R. S. (2001). Question of transecallosal facilitation of motor recovery: Stroke implications. Trans Am Neurol , 95:207-210. Boudrias, M., Mcpherson, R. L., Frost, S. B., Cheney, P. (2010). Output Properties and organization of the forelimb Representation of Motor Areas on the Lateral Aspect of the Hemisphere in Rhesus Macaques. Cereb Cortex , 20(1):169- 186. Cutler, S., Hoffman, S. (2005). Tapered progesterone withdrawal enhances behavioral and moleculae recovery after traumatic brain injury. Experimental  neurology , 195(2):423-429. Draganski, B. (2006). Temporal and Spatial Dynamics of the brain structure changes during extensive learning. The journal of Neuroscience , 26(23):6314-6417. Frost, S. B., Bury, S., Friel, M., Plautz, J., Nudo, R. J. (2002). Reorganization of Remote Cortical Regions After Ischemic brain Injury: A potential Substrate for Stroke Recovery. J Neurophysiol , 89:32053214. Giovanna, P., Paolo, P., Luca, B., Thomas, R. (2008). Genesis of Neuronal and Glial progenitors in the cerebellar cortex of peripuberal and adult rabbits.  journal pone , 12(4):345-7. Kaeser, M., Alexander, F., Wyss, F., Bashir, S., Hamadjida, A., Liu, Y., et al. (2010). Effects of Unilateral Motor Cortex Lesion on Ipsilesional Hands Reach and Grasp Perfomance in Monkeys: Relationship With Recovery in the Contralesional Hand. J Neurophysiol , 103(3): 1630-1645. Lazar, S., Kerr, C., Wasserman, R. (2005). Meditation experience is associated with increased cortical thickness. neuroreport , 12(17)1893-97. Winship, I. R., murphy, T. H. (2009). Remapping the somatosensory cortex after Stroke: Insight from Imaging the Synapse to Network. Neuroscientist, 15(5):507-524.